Above-the-line see Media.

Absorbed overhead see Overheads/costs/expenses

Absorption costing is the procedure which charges fixed as well as variable overhead to cost units.
As a consequence of carrying forward of fixed production overheads in closing stock values, the cost of sales used to determine profit in absorption costing will: 1) include some fixed production overhead costs incurred in a previous period but carried forward into opening stock values of the current period; 2) exclude some fixed production overhead cost incurred in the current period by including them in closing stock values. In contrast marginal costing charges the actual fixed costs of a period in full into the profit and loss account of period.
Bases of absorption which can be used to absorb overheads into cost units: 1) A percentage of direct material cost, 2) A percentage of direct labor cost, 3) A percentage of prime cost, 4) A rate per machine hour, 5) A rate direct labor hour, 6) A rate per unit.

See also Marginal costing.

Absorption rate is a rate charged to a cost unit intended to account for the overhead at a predetermined level of activity.

Accelerator principle is the theory that new investment increases in response to a change in output.

Acceptance is a positive act by a person accepting an offer so as to bring a contact into effect.

Account activity   refers to discussions of accounts won and lost, and re-assignments of existing accounts.   (Responsive Database Services, Inc.)

Account manager(Account executive) see Advertising agency

Account planer see Advertising agency

Account planning means 'heaving ideas about what leads people to respond to advertising'.

Accountability is a person's liability to be called to account for his or her actions, or his or her subordinates' actions.

Accounting rate of return is a method of investment appraisal.

Acid rain Discharges of sulfur dioxide from power stations or vehicle exhaust gases combine with water vapor in the atmosphere.

ACORN is a categorization of Residential Neighborhoods.
See Geodemographics database.

Activities What an organization does. Primary activities (e.g. manufacturing) directly add value to inputs. Support activities (e.g. R & D) support primary activities.

Activity based costing (ABC) Cost attribution to cost units on the basis of benefit received from indirect activities e.g. ordering, setting-up, assuring quality.
The ABC costing process: 1) Identifying an organization's major activities; 2) Identifying the factors which determine the size of costs of activity/cause the cost of an activity (Identifying Cost drives); 3) Collect the costs of each activity into what are known as Cost pools (Equivalent to cost centers); 4) Charge support overheads to products on the basis of their usage of the activity.
Cost drivers (i) Set-up time in minutes, (ii) Time in minutes for total operations, (iii) Number of batches, (iv) Material value as a percentage of product cost, (v) Quality control testing time, (vi) Number of sales orders, (vii) Number of sales quotes, (viii) Number of sales visits, (ix) Number of customers served, (x) Marketing support time.
The benefits claimed from the introduction of ABC: 1) Reduction of costs, 2) Greater profitability, 3) Greater interaction between functions, 4) Improved cost awareness amongst departmental managers, 5) Improved management information, 6) A greater understanding of product cost, 7) Overhead reductions via activity analysis, 8) Possible changes of range of products or pricing strategy, 9) The identification of non value-adding activities.

Ad inserts enclosures that are used to relate information as part of an overall advertising campaign. (Responsive Database Services, Inc.)

Ad recall the measured ability of readers or audiences to remember ads they have viewed in various media and programs. (Responsive Database Services, Inc.)

Ad tip ins inserts placed in a publication, such as extra pages of advertising or subscription return cards. These are also known as free-standing inserts (FSIs). (Responsive Database Services, Inc.)

Ad volume amount of dollars or media units (e.g., hours, number of pages) spent on advertising and marketing efforts. (Responsive Database Services, Inc.)

Administered marketing system A type of Vertical marketing system in which one player has control by way of influence and agreement but not through explicit ownership or contractual arrangement. (Courtland L. Bovee, John V. Thill)

Ad-hoc models Models designed to apply to a specific market.

Administrative expenses see Overheads/costs/expenses

Adoption process
Definition #1. Adoption process focuses on the mental processes through which an individual passes from first hearing about the innovation to final adoption (Rogers).
Definition #2. Adoptions process similar to buyer behavior i.e. the process of deciding to buy a product.
Adopter categories (Rogers) can indicate the extent to which people are prepared to innovate and try out new products: 1) Innovators (2.5%) tend to be risk takers, 2) Early adopters (13.5%), 3) Early majority (34%) are categorized by their caution behavior, 4) Large (or late) majority (34%) may be skeptical or economically constrained, Laggards (16%) are last people to adopt new product.
Characteristics of adopter groups (Assael):
1) Innovators represent on average the first 2.5% of all those who adopt. They are eager to try new ideas and products almost as an obsession. They have higher incomes are better educated, and are more active outside their community than non-innovators. They are less reliant on group norms, more self confident, and more likely to obtain their information from scientific sources and experts.
2) Early adapters represent on average the next 13.5% to adopt the product, adopting early in the product's life cycle. They are much more reliant on group norms and values than innovators, and are much more oriented to the local community than the innovators who have a more cosmopolitan outlook. Early adopters are more likely to be opinion leaders because of their closer affiliation to groups and Assael regards them as the most important group in determining whether a new product will be successful since they are more likely to transmit word of mouth influence.
3) The early majority represents the next 34% to adopt. They will deliberate more carefully before adopting a new product, collecting more information and evaluating more brands than will the early adopters. Therefore, the process of adoption takes longer. They are an important link in the diffusion process as they are positioned between the earlier and later adopters.
4) The late majority represent the next 34% to adopt, and described by Rogers as skeptical: they adopt because most of their friends have already done so. Since they rely on group norms, adoption is the result of the pressure to conform. They tend to be older, with below average income and education, relying primarily on word of mouth communication rather than the mass media.
5) Laggards represent the final 16% to adopt. They are similar to innovators in not relying on the norms of the group. They are independent because they are tradition-bound, with decisions made in terms of the past. By the time they adopt an innovation, it has probably been superseded by something else. Laggards have the lowest socioeconomic status.
Stages of adoption process (Kotler): 1) Awareness - The consumer becomes aware of innovation but lacks information about it; 2) Interest - The consumer is stimulated to seek information about the innovation; 3) Evaluation - The consumer considers whether to try the innovation; 4) Trial - The consumer tries the innovation to improve his or her estimate of its value; and 5) Adoption - The consumer decides to make full and regular use of the innovation.

Characteristics of new products associated with the success in the market (Rice): 1. Relative advantage; 2. Compatibility; 3. Complexity; 4. Tradability; 5. Observability.

Advertising
Description 1. Advertising is any paid form of non-personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods or services by an identifiable sponsor.
Description 2. Advertising is any means of paid for communication which is directed via mass media to achieve agreed marketing objectives.

Advertising mix: 1) Press, 2) Broadcast ads, 3) Mailings, 4) Catalogues, 5) Motion pictures, 6) Brochures, 7) Posters, 8) Directories, 9) Outdoor ads and 10) Displays.

Advertising objectives: 1) Promoting products, services, organizations and causes, 2) Increasing product usage, 3) Reinforcing and reminding, 4) Building customer loyalty, 5) Introducing new products, 6) Offsetting competitor's advertising, 7) Assisting sales personnel, 8) Alleviating sales fluctuations. See also Advertising campaign.

Regulation of advertising. The advertising industry is regulated by the British Code of Advertising Practice (BCAP) and is administered by Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) - advertising - legal, decent, honest and truthful'. The regulation of promotion activities is largely based on self regulatory codes of practice than statutory low as there no one act which covers the entire range of promotional activities.

Types of advertising: 1) Institutional advertising promotes an organization' s images, people, ideas or political issues and anything that the advertiser wants to publicize; 2) Product advertising promotes goods and services.

Economic and social benefits of advertising: 1. High and rising standards of living; 2. Diffusion of innovation throughout society; 3. Stimulus for new products; 4. Stimulus for lower prices; 5. Prevention of monopoly; 6. Provision of information on issues of internet to society; 7. Entertainment; 8. Promotion of charities; Growing social responsibility and support environmental issues.

Advertising agency
Full service agency is an organization, which can offer 'through the line' services (elements of promotional mix), to its clients. Range of in-house resources. Fees + retainer payment. Account manager. Knowledge. Not flexible. Other criteria to choice: stability, reputation, experience and chemistry. Full service agencies offer a full creative, media planning and account handling service to their clients.

A la carte agency - specialist 'hot' shops. Uniquely tailored service. Independence and creativity. Low overheads. Complex logistics in communications. High cost of the time involved in communication. Flexibility. Other criteria to choice: stability, reputation, experience and chemistry. A la carte is the approach to the advertising function whereby the various services that a client requires, such as creative work and media-buying are handled by separate specialist agencies.

Criteria to choice the agency: 1) Understood problems, 2) Creative and original, 3) Management ability, 4) Compatibility, 5) Presentation, 6) Degree of service, 7) Progressive yet practical, 8) Good research department, 9) Good media people, 10) Allow contact with 'workers', 11) Sensible approach to marketing, 12) Good new product development ideas, 13) POS (point of sales) facilities, 14) World-wide organization, 15) Level of experience in the client's field of work, 16) The extent to which the agency's culture and management style fits with that of the prospective client, 17) Potential conflict with existing business handled within the agency network, 18) The control and co-ordination procedures in place.

Agency selection procedure:
1) Define requirements;
2) Develop a list of potential agencies (trade press, professional association such as IPA or IBSA);
3) Ask agencies to present their credentials (examples of current or past work, employee profiles and company history);
4) Issue a brief to shortlisted agencies (brief should contain situational details, objectives, strategy and tactics, target market data, budget and timescales, performance evaluation information);
5) Full agency presentations backed by a written proposal document;
6) Analyze presentations (ability to understand the product and market, strong research and planning, media planning and buying capabilities, creativity, internal resources, consigns, case histories);
7) Select the winner;
8) Agree contractual details.

Own vs. Local agency: 1) Advantages: (i) Linguistic capability, (ii) Familiarity with local market, customs, regulations etc., (iii) Media knowledge and contacts, (iv) Store of market intelligence, (v) On the spot if speedy decision making is needed; 2) Disadvantages: (i) Linguistic barriers, (ii) Control may be difficult as a result of geographic distance and cultural diversities, (iii) Possibility of limited organizational and product knowledge, (iv) Costs in the form of traveling to meetings, (v) Familiarization lead time would be longer than with a own agency.

Brief for an advertising agency:
1) Situation - company details, such as market share, competitive position, strengths and weaknesses;
2) Objectives - in terms of communications strategy;
3) Strategy - how the above objectives are going to be achieved;
4) Tactics - the finer details of the strategy;
5) Target market - ages, sex, motivations, buying habits etc.;
6) Budget - availability and payment details;
7) Timescales;
8) Personnel - team members, reporting structure, ancillary staff;
9) Evaluation - how this will be carried out and what criteria will be used.

The advertising agency's proposal: 1. The agency's interpretation of the client's advertising problem; 2. The creative and media strategy which will ensure objectives are met; 3. Control mechanism to be used; 4. Timing schedules; 5. Allocation of responsibilities; 6. Costings; 7. Terms and conditions of business.

Contract with advertising agency (key issues): 1) Termination, 2) Remuneration, 3) Contact, 4) Authority, 5) Confidentiality, 6) Measurement.

Methods of agency remuneration: 1) Fees (on off basis or annual or quarterly basis), 2) On results (impact of uncontrollable, external forces), 3) Commission (most common method).

Process of handling a piece of client work: 1) Client problem, 2) Brief account executive, 3) Internal briefing (account planer, art director and copywriter, media planner/buyer), 4) Client presentation, 4) Production of adverts or previously use of research (broadcast, print, outdoor), 5) Media-buying, 6) Campaign appears, 7) Evaluation/feedback.

Departments of advertising agency:
i) Planning department.
Account planer is responsible for trying to discover how advertising is received and interpreted and what people find valuable in products and brands. One of the most important elements of the job is to commission, understand and interpret research.
Account planning means heaving ideas about what leads people to respond to advertising.
ii) Creative department. These are essentially the ideas people and in basic terms deal with words and pictures, that is to say the copy and the art direction.
iii) Media planning and buying department.
iv) Production department. This is department, which is actually responsible for making the advertisement. Often there is an element of subcontracting here as studios, camera crew and actors may be required.
v) Account management department.
Account manager is dedicated to a particular group of clients or in some cases an individual client. Account responsibilities: 1) attendance all meeting; 2) writing up all regular reports; 3) coordination activities, 4) presenting agency findings, 5) feeding back client comments. The role of account manager is key as they are dedicated to individual clients and therefore carry ultimate responsibility for the client's satisfaction.
vi) Traffic department. This deals with getting the artwork or film to the magazine or TV station on time. When the promotional campaign involves a number of media this process becomes complicated because accurate timing is crucial.

There are certain key principles that underpin the management of a client/agency relationship:
1. Management is by the client; 2. The agency team must work closely within the client's marketing department. 3. Briefing must be specific and unambiguous. 4. All research data and management control information available to the brand manager must be provided to the agency. 5. The agency should sit in on the client's strategic planning meetings as an equal member, and of right. 6. Time and cost requirements must be reasonable and must be accepted by the agency. 7. The client should not meddle in the creative process and the agency should not interfere with the production of the package, although may make an input, as appropriate, as part of the strategic planning process. 8. Full credit must be given when agency is successful, and shared responsibility must be accepted as appropriate. 9. Fees and commissions should be agreed in advance and accounts should be paid promptly. 10. Copy should never be changed once it has been approved. It should be fully checked before it is signed off. Changes after that stage are not only expensive but, more importantly, they are damaging to the brand manager's personal credibility with the agency.

Reasons for tension between agency and client: 1) Not meeting required standards, 2) Remuneration details, 3) An ambiguous brief, 4) Not meeting deadlines, 5) Personality conflicts.

Results of Campaign's survey (1996) on choosing an agency:
1. Why do you change agency?
(i) It is not devoting enough time/resources to you account - 87%;
(ii) It has lost its enthusiasm for working on your product/service - 85%;
(iii) It is working on a conflicting account - 61%;
(iv) There is personality clash - 44%;
(v) It lacks integrated communication skills 32%;
(vi) It lacks the technology to service your account 15%;
2. How do you go about drawing up a shortlist?
(i) You take into consideration advertising you admire - 86%;
(ii) You ask acquaintances for recommendations - 77%;
(iii) You read the marketing press - 59%;
(iv) You read Campaign - 45%
(v) You take into consideration creative/effectiveness ad awards - 44%
(vi) You use the Advertising Agency Register - 38%;
(vii) You use Campaign Portfolio - 36%;
(viii) You appoint a selection consultant - 5%.
3. What do you look for at the pitch?
(i) Evidence the agency understands and can enhance your brand - 95%;
(ii) Quality of thinking - 94%;
(iii) Good chemistry between both parties - 90%;
(iv) Presence of senior agency staff who will stay on your account - 81%;
(v) Evidence of sound business/management skills - 75%;
(vi) Strategy that offers value for money - 73%;
(vii) A powerful creative idea - 68%;
(viii) An agency culture which fits your own - 64%.
4. What do you look for in a new agency?
(i) It is fundamentally committed to creative excellence - 74%;
(ii) It has previous experience working in you market sector - 46%;
(iii) It offers a remuneration system based on fees not commissions 41%;
(iv) It has embraced new technology and uses it 38%;
(v) It offers a fully integrated service, including below the line - 35%;
(vi) It is able to advise you on the information superhighway - 22%;
(vii) It offers international resources - 16%.
5. How could your agency improve its service to you?
(i) Unprompted original ideas - 78%;
(ii) Cut costs - 66%;
(iii) Not be afraid to challenge your viewpoint - 56%;
(iv) Devote more time/resources to your account - 49%
(v) Embrace new technology and use it to your advantage - 44%;
(vi) Offer a more trough-the-line approach - 41%;
(vii) Spend less time wining and dining and more time working - 21%.
6. In which of the following areas could your agency improve its skills?
(i) Creativity - 55%; (ii) Strategy - 50%; (iii) Research - 42%; (iv) Planning - 36%; (v) Below the line - 27%; (vi) Media - 23%.

Agency self-regulation  self-policing by the advertising industry, may include discussion of ethical issues, certification, standards, and reviews and recommendations by ad industry policing bodies of allegedly deceptive advertising.

Advertising and communications research includes creative development research, pre-testing and tracking studies (omnibus survey and panel research).
Advertising task/objectives and Measures of effect: 1. Support increase in sales, e.g. local publisher. s advert in a regional newspaper: 1.1 Orders, 1.2 Level of enquiries; 2. Inform consumers, e.g. an Amnesty International advert about political prisoners: 2.1 Donations, 2.2 Number of new members clipping appeal coupon; 3. Remind , e.g. Yellow Pages television commercial. Awareness levels; 4. Create / reinforce image , e.g. Halifax Building Society ' people' commercials: 4.1 Awareness levels, 4.2 Image created; 5. Change attitude , e.g. British Nuclear Fuel LTD's Sellafield open door poster campaign.

Advertising effectiveness evaluation:
i) Pre-testing is a safety device used to check whether the advertising is liable to be effective prior to a full launch. Analyzing reactions to issues: 1) impact, 2) involvement, 3) communication, 4) image, 5) recall, 6) originality.
ii) Post-test evaluation of advertisement (communication objectives): 1) consumer survey, 2) observation techniques, 3) recall tests (each respondent is asked about what advertisements he or she has seen recently), 4) recognition tests (each respondent is shown the actual advertisement and asked if he or she recognizes it), 5) experiments.
iii) Sales promotion effectiveness evaluation: 1) sales dynamics, 2) experimental, 3) control groups.
iv) Sales force effectiveness evaluation: 1) sales, in total, by customer, and by product; 2) contribution, in total, by customer and by product; 3) selling expenses (budget versus actual); 4) customer call frequency; 5) average sales and sales value per call; 6) average contribution per call; 7) average cost per call; 8) average trade discount; 9) number of new customers obtained; 10) percentage increase in sales compared with previous period; 11) average number of repeat calls per sale; 12) average mileage traveled per one sales; 13) percentage of orders per hundred sales contacts; 14) number of new customer and number of customers lost per period; 15) Salesforce cost as a percentage of total sales.
v) Public relation effectiveness evaluation: 1) media space gained, 2) number of articles, 3) favorable comments.
iv) Coupon redemption is another method not only advertising effectiveness, but also the media which has been chosen.

See also Marketing communications effectiveness, Economy, Efficiency and Effectiveness.

Advertising campaign involves designing a series of advertisements and placing them in various advertising media to reach a particular target market.

Specific advertising campaign objectives: 1) Build strong brand image, 2) Accelerate growth - increase market share, 3) Research inaccessible buyers, 4) Brand recognition and awareness, 5) Influence buying decision, 6) Enhance perceived value, 7) Payway for personal selling, 8) Support selling between calls, 9) Announce new product, 10) New buyers/users, 11) Announce offer/promotion, 12) Announce product change, 13) Corporate, 14) Self direct, 15) Obtain/expand stock-list, 16) Educate consumers, 17) Expand total market, 18) Change competition - defensive/offensive, 19) Remind, 20) Increase frequently in use, 21) Make announce to trade, 22) Aid to confidence (trade), 23) Retrieve lost sales, 24) Effect immediate buying action, 25) Keep product in public eye.

Two types of advertising campaign:
I. Burst campaign concentrates expenditure into promotional bursts of three or four weeks in length.
II. Drip campaign allows for a continuous but more spread out presence.

Advertising campaign planning:1) Identification and analysis of advertising target, 2) Definition of advertising objectives, 3) Creating advertising platform, 4) Determination of the advertising budget, 5) Development of media plan, 6) Creation of the message, 7) Effectiveness evaluation.

Campaign awards Awards given for excellence in advertising campaigns. An example is the American Television and Radio Commercials Festival, which awards winners with a gold statuette called a Clio.

Campaign design Covers trends in ad design and copy or design of specific ads.

Campaign effectiveness Discussion of the results of a campaign in terms of increased sales, increase in market share or change in level of awareness; also includes assessment of the reasons for the campaign success or failure.

Campaign slogan Phrase or sentence used repeatedly in the advertising of a product or service that, through its repetition alone, eventually comes to identify the product or service.

Campaign spokesperson Animated or created characters as well as people living or deceased who represent a product or service. Use Character Symbol for historical figures.

Campaign theme Primary topic, subject, motif or idea around which an advertising campaign is organized.

Advertising effectiveness see Advertising and communications research.

Advertising target is the group of people at which advertisements are aimed.

Agent is a person authorized to act for another (the principal) and bring that other into legal relations with a third party.

Aggregate demand is the total of planned expenditure on goods and services in an economy.

Aging is the increase in the average age of the population.

Agreement The agreement is a commercially binding contract negotiated in great detail by the two parties.

See also distributor agreement, overseas agent agreement and advertising agency agreement.

AIDA see Model

A la carte See Advertising agency.

Aided recall A post-testing technique that shows specific ads to people who then answer various questions about them. (Courtland L. Bovee, John V. Thill)

Allocation is the process of charging overheads direct to cost centers or cost units.

Anchor stores Large department stores or discount stores that serve as the main stores in planned shopping centers because of their strong customer appeal. (Courtland L. Bovee, John V. Thill)

Ansoff matrix is the approach to product-market strategies based on new or existing products and new or existing markets.

Ansoff matrix framework (in order of risk increasing): 1) Market penetration  - existent market, existent product; 2) Market development - new market, existent product; 3) New product development  - existent market, new product; 4) Diversification - new market, new product.

The strategies rested on the Ansoff matrix:
A Market penetration: 1) More purchase and usage from existing customers (encourage repeat sales with sale offers, discounts on multiple purchases, setting up a database, mailing customers with relevant offers, supplementary product ideas, training sales people, linking sales techniques), 2) Gain customers from competitors (create differential advantage, emphasize 'custom made suited' and customers. ability to specify their requirements, consider buying a local competitor, reduce prices), 3) Convert non-users: (increase promotion spend, use direct mail, yellow pages, local radio, sales promotion and step up efforts to gain local publicity, offer existing and previous customers an incentive for recommendations to family and friends).
B Market development:1) New market sectors (consider quality conscious rather price conscious customers etc.), 2) New distribution channels (new outlets and points of sales, 3) Local or national retail chain, 4) Mail-order catalogue or mail-order advertising, web site), 5) New geographic areas e.g. international marketing (marketing research).
C New product development: 1) Product modifications, 2) Different quality levels (value range, standard range and deluxe range), 3) 'new' products. Actions to generate maximum returns: 1. Appropriate marketing strategy: 1) Price skimming marketing strategy, 2) Penetration marketing strategy, 3) Licensing, 4) Franchising.
D Diversification: 1) Horizontal integration, 2) Vertical integration, 3) Concentric diversification, 4) Conglomerate diversification.

APIC Kotler have described marketing management activities as Analysis, Planning, Implementation, and Control.

Appeal is a request to a higher court by a person dissatisfied with a decision of a lower court that the previous decision be reviewed.

See also Emotional appeals, Moral appeals and Rational appeals.

Appendix is a supplement containing explanatory or statistical information attached to the end of a report. To append means to attach an appendix covering some topic in more detail than in the report.

Applied research Original research with a definite application in mind.

Apportionment The process of dividing overheads between cost centers.

Appraisal is a review of an individual's performance with a view
to improving it.

The process of appraisal: 1) Identification of criteria for assessment, 2) The preparation by subordinate's manager of an assessment report, 3) An appraisal interview, 4) Review of the assessment by the assessor's own superior, 5) The preparation and implementation of action plans to achieve improvements and changes agreed, 6) Follow-up: monitoring the progress of the action plan.

Techniques of appraisal: 1) Overall assessment, 2) Guided assessment, 3) Grading, 4) Result orientated schemes, 5) Self-appraisals.

Appraisal interview: 1. Prepare: 1.1 Plan: place, time, environment, 1.2 Review employee history. 1.3 Consult: other managers - let employee prepare. 2. Interview: 2.1 Listen to employee - Discuss, don't argue, 2.2 Encourage employee to talk, identify problems and solutions, 2.3 Be fair. 3. Agree: 3.1 Gain employee commitment, 3.2 Agree plan of action for both, 3.3 Summarize to check understanding. 4. Report: 4.1 Write up appraisal report, 4.2 Encourage employee to commitment. 5. Follow. up: 5.1 Take actions agreed, 5.2 Monitor progress, 5.3 Keep employee informed.

Areas of management competence: 1) The ability to plan and prioritize, 2) The ability to respond to differences between actual and planned performance, 3) Managing others, 4) Personal drive and enthusiasm, 5) The intellectual competencies of managers.

Appraisal interview methods: 1) Tell and sell method, 2) Tell and listen method, 3) Problem-solving approach.

Appraisal report: 1. Name, 2. Position, 3. Company, 4. Time in position, 5. Period of review, 6. Age, 7. Overall assessment - ABCDE (A = outstanding, B = Above standard, C = To required standard, D = Short of standard in some respects, E = Not up to required standard). Comment: 7.1 Job knowledge, 7.2 Effective output, 7.3 Co-operative, 7.4 Initiative, 7.5 Time-keeping, 7.6 Other relevant factors (specify). Potential - ABCDE (A = Overdue for promotion, B = Ready for promotion, C = Potential for promotion, D = No evidence of promotion potential at present, E = Has not worked long enough with me for judgment, 8. Training, if any, required.

Approvers see Decision Making Unit

Arbitration A means of settling a dispute outside the courts.

Article is a piece of non-fiction text written for inclusion into a journal, newspaper or similar.

Assessment centers are useful forum to range of group and individual tests and exercises where individuals can be scored and a measure of their aptitude in key areas can be identified.

Asset Any tangible or intangible possession which has value.

Asset turnover
Definition #1. Asset turnover is a ratio used to measure how efficiently the operations of a business have been managed.
Definition #2. Asset turnover is the ratio of sales turnover to capital employed.

Association advertising advertising by associations or trade groups to promote an industry or product category as opposed to a specific brand; for example: the National Dairy Board campaign to drink milk. (Responsive Database Services, Inc.)

Atmosphere A part of retail image that is created by a blend of sensory effects intended to create a specific shopping mood. (Courtland L. Bovee, John V. Thill)

Attitude
Definition #1. Attitude is a position an individual has adopted in response to a theory, belief, object, event, or another person.
Definition #2. Attitude is a relatively consistent, learned predisposition to behave in a certain way in response to a given object.
Definition #3. Attitude is a person's enduring favorable or unfavorable cognitive evaluations, emotional feelings, and action tendencies toward some object or idea.

Three components to attitude: 1. A cognitive component which is what the individual knows or believes about object or act; 2. An affective component which is what the individual feels emotionally about an object or act; 3. A cognitive component which is how the individual is disposed to behave towards an object or act.

Attributable Fixed cost see Overheads/costs/expenses

Attribution theory is the theory that individuals attribute motives and qualities to themselves and other people.

Audience The person or persons who are receiving a transmitted message. (Courtland L. Bovee, John V. Thill)

Average price strategy see Pricing policies

Avoidable costs see Overheads/costs/expenses

Awareness-Trial-Reinforcement Ehrenberg's process Ehrenberg suggest that a trial purchase may proceed from awareness of a brand or confrontation with a product in a retail outlet, after which the consumer gets to know the product and develops an attitude towards it.
See Marketing communications effectiveness.

Awareness set See Buyer Behavior Theory.